doi: 10.1039/C5MB00319A, Ooi, V.E., and Liu, F. (2000). BioSyst. Euglena gracilis as source of the antioxidant vitamin E. Effects of culture conditions in the wild strain and in the natural mutant WZSL. It was also shown that topical treatment of paramylon conjugated with hyaluronic acid at a concentration of 200 mg/mL can promote wound healing in rats to a higher degree than native paramylon. Acta (BBA) Enzymol. 133, 15171521. Nutr. For example, expression of the Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 fructose-1,6-/sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase gene in E. gracilis chloroplasts was shown to significantly enhance its photosynthetic activity, as well as the paramylon yield (by almost 2-fold), the WE yield under anaerobic conditions (~100-fold) and the biomass yield (~2-fold) (Ogawa et al., 2015). Br. doi: 10.3382/ps/pey227. (1986). Nutr. From these, paramylon is already marketed as an immunostimulatory agent in nutraceuticals. Plant Cell Physiol. Euglena live in fresh and brackish water habitats such as ponds rich in organic matter. Photosynthetic euglenids are major components of aquatic ecosystems and relatives of trypanosomes. The typical ascorbate titre of a PT-cultivated E. gracilis is around 4 mg/g DW or 8 mg/L culture, whereas it is negligible for E. gracilis cultivated under HT conditions (Shigeoka et al., 1980; Hasan et al., 2017). (2017). 1128, 220226. Paramylon also can act as a potent antioxidant protecting mice from acute hepatic injury induced by CCl4 treatment and was shown to alleviate non-alcoholic steatohepatitis in mice caused by a combination of streptozocin injection and high fat diet when orally administered at a dosage of 1 or 3 g/kg bodyweight (BW) per day, respectively (Sugiyama et al., 2009; Nakashima et al., 2018a). doi: 10.1016/j.fsi.2018.04.003, Yamane, Y.-,I., Utsunomiya, T., Watanabe, M., and Sasaki, K. (2001). 64, 415419. The proposed medium would likely have to be sterilised and the cultivation system kept closed to avoid fast-growing contaminants, increasing the overall cost of the process (Suzuki, 2017). 142, 121126. Eukaryot. Scope of algae as third generation biofuels. (2016). However, DW titres of E. gracilis under PT conditions are significantly lower than those obtained with MT/HT growth (Table 1) (Takeyama et al., 1997; Hasan et al., 2017). Biophys. Isoprenoid biosynthesis in eukaryotic phototrophs: a spotlight on algae. doi: 10.1111/jpy.12758, Sutivisedsak, N., Leathers, T.D., Bischoff, K.M., Nunnally, M.S., and Peterson, S.W. J. 10, 555559. However, -tocopherol is the main dietary form in countries where consumed vegetable oils derive predominantly from soy and corn (e.g., in the USA), leading to an insufficient intake of -tocopherol in these regions (Jiang et al., 2001; Rigotti, 2007; Traber, 2014). Despite substantial evidence for the health-enhancing bioactivities of paramylon and paramylon-derived compounds as outlined above, we are not aware of any clinical studies confirming these claims. Characterization of -tocopherol methyltransferases from Capsicum annuum L and Arabidopsis thaliana. In an alternative approach, genes encoding single enzymes of the E. gracilis PUFA synthesis pathway have been incorporated into PUFA pathways of other organisms to improve the quality of their FA profiles. Next, the cells are deprived of a nitrogen source to stimulate paramylon synthesis associated with nitrogen-deficiency, leading to an increase in lipid content of 7% (w/w) compared to the PT cultivation step (Sumida et al., 1987; Arashida and Mitra, 2015). Paramylon molecules are arranged as an intermolecular triple helix forming microfibrils, which in turn make up fibres. 39, 4960. doi: 10.1039/C3FO60256G, Weber, D., and Grune, T. (2012). 13, 195205. PT cultivation produces ~20-fold less biomass (between 2 and 3 g DW/L culture) compared to HT and MT cultivation (Table 1) (Grimm et al., 2015; Hasan et al., 2017). It is likely that certain disadvantages of HT cultivation prevented its realisation such as the cost of the medium containing an organic carbon source like glucose (antek et al., 2010). 2011; Sanghvi and Martin 2010 ). Biochem. The mechanisms responsible for this observed reduction are still unclear, but may be related to an effect of paramylon on the gut microbiome (Watanabe et al., 2013). (2001). E. gracilis has been a popular model organism and of considerable biotechnological interest, but the absence of a gene catalogue has hampered both basic research and translational efforts. A comparison of lipid patterns in photosynthesizing and nonphotosynthesizing cells of Euglena gracilis. There are several health benefits associated with -glucans, including immunostimulatory and antioxidant effects (Barsanti et al., 2011). Euglena are also able to move by means of changing its . Front. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2016.1160362, Yadavalli, R., Rao, C.S., Rao, R.S., and Potumarthi, R. (2014). doi: 10.1016/0005-2744(67)90227-6, Matos, .P. 93, 5571. However, more studies would be needed to elucidate the nature of the observed effects and to confirm quantifiable benefits for the animals. Moreover, feeding male rats with 20 mg paramylon/kg BW daily was shown to improve the quality of their sperm (e.g., motility, vitality, and acrosome integrity) (Ak Sonat et al., 2018). 109, 21602172. 142, 587S591S. doi: 10.1016/j.mam.2007.01.002, Ritala, A., Hkkinen, S.T., Toivari, M., and Wiebe, M.G. Functional characterization of D-galacturonic acid reductase, a key enzyme of the ascorbate biosynthesis pathway, from Euglena gracilis. Received: 28 December 2018; Accepted: 29 April 2019; Published: 15 May 2019. Firstly, by optimizing the solid-liquid ratio, extraction time, extraction . Acta (BBA) Enzymol. Its most studied wild-type strains are Z and bacillaris, but their discrimination by standard molecular methods is difficult.Therefore, we decided to test the suitability of MALDI-TOF MS (matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry . Carotenoids: biochemistry, pharmacology and treatment. 5, 503514. Chem. Aspects Med. doi: 10.1271/bbb.80062, Ishikawa, T., Tajima, N., Nishikawa, H., Gao, Y., Rapolu, M., Shibata, H., et al. doi: 10.1023/a:1008022305865, Kusmic, C., Barsanti, L., Di Lascio, N., Faita, F., Evangelista, V., and Gualtieri, P. (2018). doi: 10.1007/s11306-014-0687-1, Garca-Garca, J.D., Girard, L., Hernndez, G., Saavedra, E., Pardo, J.P., Rodrguez-Zavala, J.S., et al. For example, intracellular lipids of a mutant strain generated by Fe-ion irradiation of the WT parental strain were stained with a boron-dipyrromethene dye (BODIPY505/515) to isolate high-producers using fluorescence-activated cell sorting. 4, 115. Biotechnol. Biophys. Oxidative glucanases: cleavage of crystalline paramylon to make it accessible for other enzymes, possibly similar to oxidative cleavage of cellulose (Johansen, 2016). (2012). Prod. de Oliveira, M.A.C.L., Monteiro, M.P.C., Robbs, P.G., and Leite, S. (1999). 28, 423436. Fatty acid content in wild type and WZSL mutant of Euglena gracilis. Metabolomics 11, 175183. 25, 299307. Euglena gracilis is a promising alternative supplement because it's a source of dietary protein, pro vitamins, lipids and the -1,3-glucan paramylon, in fact, studies have demonstrated that microalgae biomass can be a potential substitute for soybean and fish meal (Aemiro et al. Lipids 47, 913926. Opt. (Table 1) (de Oliveira et al., 1999; Tokuoglu and nal, 2003; Ramazanov and Ramazanov, 2006;Rodrguez-Zavala et al., 2010). Phycol. Int. J. doi: 10.1042/bj20091406, Jeng, W.Y., Wang, N.C., Lin, M.H., Lin, C.T., Liaw, Y.C., Chang, W.J., et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 93, 499505. 174, 12901324. Advanced aviation fuels: a look ahead via a historical perspective. Euglena gracilis cell confined in a glass capillary and imaged using bright-field reflected light microscopy. It should be noted that ascorbate production by E. gracilis has not attracted much attention, probably because consumption of just 100 to 200 mL of juice from citrus fruits like oranges (Table 1) is enough to fulfil the daily recommended intake of adults (75 and 90 mg for females and males, respectively) (Grosso et al., 2013; US Department of Agriculture., 2018). Rep. 7, 113. Biochem. J. Neurol. Presently, only nutritious whole cell meal, the nutraceutical paramylon and cosmetics are commercially viable, while biofuel production from E. gracilis cell mass is in contrast not yet feasible. Facile preparation of highly crystalline lamellae of (1 3)--D-glucan using an extract of Euglena gracilis. The roles and mechanisms of actions of vitamin C in bone: new developments. Microbiology 133, 2530. J. Agricult. The lipid yield and the ratio of FAs/FAlcs to WEs have been shown to be strongly dependent on the cultivation conditions and the E. gracilis strain used (Tucci et al., 2010). 74, 714722. Production of very long chain polyunsaturated omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in plants. The unique ascorbate synthesis pathway from E. gracilis (Figure 2B) has been elucidated using radiotracer experiments, as well as transcriptomic and proteomic studies (Ishikawa and Shigeoka, 2008; O'Neill et al., 2015b; Hasan et al., 2017). 82, 16011605. Appl. Euglena gracilis has a pathway for the synthesis of EPA and subsequently DHA (Figure 2D), and the enzymes within this pathway have been characterised biochemically. doi: 10.1016/j.algal.2018.11.022, Kim, D., Filtz, M.R., and Proteau, P.J. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.09.008, Giese, E., Dekker, R., Barbosa, A., da Silva, M., and da Silva, R. (2011). 494, 379383. Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases: the microbial power tool for lignocellulose degradation. Suzuki, K. (2017). Catalytic cracking of wax esters extracted from Euglena gracilis for hydrocarbon fuel production. Eye Res. (2001). Plate 1. have proposed a multi-stage process where smaller bioreactors generate the inocula for the bigger stages (up to 1,000,000 L) with the aim to increase biomass titres to 120 g/L culture or higher (Levine et al., 2013). Lentinan with S-1 and paclitaxel for gastric cancer chemotherapy improve patient quality of life. -tocopherol content of greek virgin olive oils. doi: 10.1046/j.1529-8817.2001.037001038.x, Beacham, T.A., Sweet, J.B., and Allen, M.J. (2017). Microalgae-based carbohydrates for biofuel production. Heterotrophic cultivation of Euglena gracilis Z for efficient production of -tocopherol. A putative enzymatic mechanism for complete synergistic hydrolysis of the polysaccharide paramylon to glucose is shown in Figure 3C. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0195329, Watanabe, T., Shimada, R., Matsuyama, A., Yuasa, M., Sawamura, H., Yoshida, E., et al. doi: 10.1271/bbb.60327, Ishikawa, T., and Shigeoka, S. (2008). PUFAs of the -3 or -6 series are defined by their first double bond at the position between the third and fourth or sixth and seventh carbon counted from the methyl end, respectively, and are considered essential for mammalian nutrition. Bioresource Technol. Chem. Microbiol. Impact of -1,3-glucan isolated from Euglena gracilis on corneal epithelial cell migration and on wound healing in a rat alkali burn model. Contribution to journal Article peer-review (2016). A typical specimen of Euglena gracilis (Fig. Sci. PT cultivation induces the synthesis of ascorbate in E. gracilis as a mechanism to cope with reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced during photosynthesis (ROS scavenging). Compared to some -tocopherol methyltransferases from plants, the E. gracilis enzyme has a high KM value (50 M for SAM) and low specific activity (251 nmol/h per mg protein for -tocopherol) (Shigeoka et al., 1992; Koch et al., 2003). (2013). doi: 10.1111/bcp.13496. Commun. 58, 532538. Synthesis of vitamin B1. For example, the antimicrobial activity of paramylon was enhanced chemically by introducing positively charged groups (e.g., 2-hydroxy-3-trimethylammoniopropyl, N,N-diethylaminoethyl, and N,N-dimethylaminoethyl groups) and sulphated paramylon was shown to exhibit anti-HIV activity (Sakagami et al., 1989; Koizumi et al., 1993). Biotechnol. Andrologia 50:e13088. PT cultivation of E. gracilis is currently favoured, probably due to lower cost and relative ease of set-up, but HT cultivation for higher yields of cell mass and paramylon could soon become reality. 31, 107115. Plant Physiol. Kataoka, K., Muta, T., Yamazaki, S., and Takeshige, K. (2002). Nippon Nogeikagaku Kaishi 51, 483488. Effects of growth conditions. (2015). E. gracilis is of considerable environmental importance and biotechnological value: it can survive a variety of carbon resources, toxic chemicals, and adverse environmental conditions such as. -1,3 glucan derived from Euglena gracilis and Algamune enhances innate immune responses of red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus L.). 16, 3441. doi: 10.1186/s12934-017-0631-y, Fritsche, S., Wang, X., and Jung, C. (2017). Int. 1.31) from Euglena gracilis Z. Arch. A better understanding of the E. gracilis pathway for -carotene biosynthesis (Figure 2A) could hold the key to further improve the yields. As yet, a maximum total lipid and WE titre of ~0.7 and 0.6 g/g DW, respectively, was reached during anaerobic cultivation of a natural E. gracilis isolate with the addition of an elongase inhibitor (Tucci et al., 2010). 207, 8390. In recent years, a growing number of cytometry approaches have been developed for the screening of E. gracilis mutant strains with an increased lipid content. The effect of -glucans on porcine leukocytes. Biomed. Hepatoprotective effects of paramylon, a -1,3-D-glucan isolated from Euglena gracilis Z, on acute liver injury induced by carbon tetrachloride in rats. Eng. The study showed that Agrobacterium-mediated transformation was superior to electroporation and biolistic bombardment, resulting in stable E. gracilis transformants. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0191462, Takeda, T., Nakano, Y., Takahashi, M., Konno, N., Sakamoto, Y., Arashida, R., et al. !3 . Euglena is a unicellular organism with a complex internal structure that includes a contractile vacuole that can expel water and a red 'eyespot' . The biosynthetic pathway of L-ascorbic acid in Euglena gracilis Z. J. Nutr. In this study, we examined the effect of paramylon intake on the circadian clock. doi: 10.2216/09-112.1, Mller, C., Ortmann, T., Abi, A., Hartig, D., Scholl, S., and Jrdening, H.-J. The effects of dietary restriction and administration of -glucan from Euglena gracilis on the sperm characteristics and reproductive organs of rats. 28, 817830. doi: 10.1002/jbmr.2709, PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar, Ak Sonat, F., Alcay, S., Toker, M.B., Peker, S., and Ustuner, B. J. Biological, and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori . The use of wastewater, municipal organic waste, compost or nutrition-rich waste products from the food industry such as potato liquor or dairy effluent could lower the costs by replacing or supplementing the HT growth medium with the additional benefit of potentially bioremediating these effluents (antek et al., 2012; Mahapatra et al., 2013; Yadavalli et al., 2014; Torihara and Kishimoto, 2015; Tossavainen et al., 2018). Biotechnol. Putative enzymatic mechanism for synergistic paramylon degradation in Euglena gracilis (C). (2012). Biochemistry 42, 97799788. Is exploitation of microalgae economically and energetically sustainable? J. Appl. They also act as a dietary fibre and have been shown to lower blood cholesterol levels (Nakashima et al., 2018b). In a heterogeneous environment, the cells move into the red circle. Foods 46, 538545. doi: 10.1590/S0104-66322012000100001, Apel, A.C., and Weuster-Botz, D. (2015). doi: 10.1021/np049892x, Kimura, M., and Ishikawa, T. (2018). 161, 11011106. The protein content of E. gracilis is on a par with popular microalgal food supplements such as those sourced from Chlorella spp. 179 (Suppl. Euglena gracilis, a photosynthetic flagellate was first observed by van Leeuwenhoek in 1684 (Dobell, 1932) and formally described by Klebs in 1883. . Front. De novo assembly and comparative transcriptome analysis of Euglena gracilis in response to anaerobic conditions. As another target for a metabolic engineering approach, trans-2-enoyl-CoA reductase has been identified as a potentially rate-limiting enzyme in the FA synthesis pathway of E. gracilis (Inui et al., 2017). doi: 10.1093/ajcn/74.6.714, Johansen, K.S. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Bumbak, F., Cook, S., Zachleder, V., Hauser, S., and Kovar, K. (2011). 54, 529538. 15, 657662. Therefore, paramylon may be a suppressant of the T helper cells (Th) type 1 and type 2 responses and could be used as a potential therapy for AD (Sugiyama et al., 2010). Bioresource Technol. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.1986.tb00031.x, Kitaoka, M., Sasaki, T., and Taniguchi, H. (1993). Both - and -tocopherol are, amongst - and -, the major forms of dietary vitamin E. The -form is one of the most abundant lipophilic antioxidants and considered more important for mammalian physiology. 30, 19451955. The -carotene content of E. gracilis cell mass grown in this two-step cultivation process or under PT conditions (3.4 or 3.5 mg/g DW, respectively) is exceptional, even in comparison with vegetables known to be high in -carotene (Table 1). doi: 10.1186/s12934-018-0879-x, Khatiwada, B., Kautto, L., Sunna, A., Sun, A., and Nevalainen, H. (2019). (2013). Eng. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.05.026, Shigeoka, S., Ishiko, H., Nakano, Y., and Mitsunaga, T. (1992). Am. Phycologia 50, 156169. Use of ionic liquids in biodiesel production: a review. doi: 10.1023/a:1008011201437, O'Neill, E.C., Trick, M., Henrissat, B., and Field, R.A. (2015a). 304, 508514. Preliminary laboratory-scale experiments to determine E. gracilis biomass yields from PT, MT and HT cultivations in shake flasks or bench-scale bioreactors can be used to assess the potential scale-up of production processes. doi: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2015.04.004, Grosso, G., Bei, R., Mistretta, A., Marventano, S., Calabrese, G., Masuelli, L., et al. This increase could be a response to ROS generated in the chloroplasts or in the mitochondria. 10, 165170. The unicellular phototrophic protist E. gracilis is ubiquitous in most freshwater biotopes. B Agricult. (2013). High-throughput label-free image cytometry and image-based classification of live Euglena gracilis. Biotechnol. Asia-Pacific J. Chem. The enzymatic conversion of major algal and cyanobacterial carbohydrates to bioethanol. doi: 10.1042/bj3330381, Doetsch, N.A., Favreau, M.R., Kuscuoglu, N., Thompson, M.D., and Hallick, R.B. Paramylon is uniquely produced by euglenoids, deposited as granules in the cytosol, and readily degraded and utilised as a carbon source under carbon starvation (Malkoff and Buetow, 1964; Kiss et al., 1986; Barsanti et al., 2001; Monfils et al., 2011). Nutr. Single cell protein production of Euglena gracilis and carbon dioxide fixation in an innovative photo-bioreactor. Fatty acyl-CoA reductase and wax synthase from Euglena gracilis in the biosynthesis of medium-chain wax esters. In the absence of complete genetic information, transcriptomic and proteomic studies have provided valuable insights into the complex metabolic pathways of E. gracilis and their regulation under different growth conditions (O'Neill et al., 2015b; Yoshida et al., 2016; Hasan et al., 2017). Regardless of the cultivation mode, dried E. gracilis cell mass would be competitive in terms of its protein content with fresh high-protein animal products such as beef, chicken or fish, of which the protein content usually does not exceed 0.4 g/g after cooking (Table 1). Enhanced curdlan production in Agrobacterium sp. J. 53, 185190. 7:108. doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2019.00108. Plant Physiol. Found worldwide, Euglena live in fresh and brackish water rich in organic matter and can also be found in moist soils. Consequently, it may be a viable commercial strategy to use E. gracilis to produce these high-value products with biofuel commodities as a co-product (Barsanti and Gualtieri, 2018). (2009). 41, 15791588. Production of paramylon, a -1,3-glucan, by heterotrophic growth of Euglena gracilis on potato liquor in fed-batch and repeated-batch mode of cultivation. In another report, the 4-desaturase from E. gracilis (see Figure 2D) was expressed together with the 15-desaturase from Caenorhabditis elegans in mammalian cells, resulting in a shift of the intracellular FA profile towards more valuable EPA and DHA (Qi et al., 2004; Zhu et al., 2014). J. Clin. bioRxiv 2017, 159. Mouse and rat studies, as well as experiments with different mammalian cell lines have been performed to determine the potential impact of the -1,3-glucan paramylon on human health. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2003.tb09615.x, Tomiyama, T., Kurihara, K., Ogawa, T., Maruta, T., Ogawa, T., Ohta, D., et al. Rev. Crit. Homogeneous and heterogeneous environments were prepared, with only a red color or with a red circle surrounded by brighter white regions, respectively. Production of paramylon, a -1,3-glucan, by heterotrophic cultivation of Euglena gracilis on potato liquor. Towards this end, an E. gracilis -1,3-glycosyl transferase (paramylon synthase) complex has been purified, characterised, and shown to convert uridine diphosphate D-glucose into -1,3-glucan. Med. In addition, the enzyme ascorbate peroxidase reduces excess hydrogen peroxide to water by oxidation of ascorbate (Shigeoka et al., 1980; Ishikawa et al., 2010; Hasan et al., 2017). Another indicator that paramylon has regulatory effects on the cells was a study on a collagen-induced arthritis mouse model (for rheumatoid arthritis), where 2% (w/w) paramylon in the diet relieved arthritis symptoms and decreased cytokine (IFN-, IL-6, and IL-17) levels, so the authors concluded a possible involvement of Th type 17 cells (Suzuki et al., 2018). Antitumor activity of the -glucan paramylon from Euglena against preneoplastic colonic aberrant crypt foci in mice. So far, only two E. gracilis enzymes involved in paramylon degradation have been characterised, an endo--1,3-glucanase and a laminaribiose phosphorylase (LBP)/-1,3-glucan phosphorylase (-1,3-GP) involved in paramylon degradation have been characterised (Vogel and Barber, 1968; Takeda et al., 2015; Kuhaudomlarp et al., 2018). Chem. While a draft genome assembly and initial features of the genome have been made available, a complete annotated genome sequence is not on hand as yet (O'Neill et al., 2015a; Ebenezer et al., 2017). Two alternative metabolic routes to -carotene have been identified biochemically or via transcriptomics in E. gracilis: the methylerythritol phosphate and the mevalonate pathway (Disch et al., 1998; Kim et al., 2004; O'Neill et al., 2015b). (2017). doi: 10.1007/s002940000174, Dragosits, M., and Mattanovich, D. (2013). Euglena gracilis is used as model organism for various microbiological, molecular biological and biotechnological studies. J. Biol. (2018). 6, 8493. Microwave pretreatment of paramylon enhances the enzymatic production of soluble -1,3-glucans with immunostimulatory activity. doi: 10.1186/s12934-017-0834-2, Teerawanichpan, P., and Qiu, X. -tocopherol, the major form of vitamin E in the US diet, deserves more attention. Anti-fibrotic activity of Euglena gracilis and paramylon in a mouse model of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Microbiol. They possess two flagellae, one long, one short, which can allow the organisms to move. doi: 10.3389/fenrg.2016.00036, Andreani, L., and Rocha, J.D. Attempts to enhance E. gracilis biomass production under PT conditions, for example with the use of a photobioreactor, resulted in maximum titres similar to those of shake flask cultures, which are several times lower than those of some microalgal species grown under closed PT conditions (Table 1) (Richmond et al., 2003; Chae et al., 2006; Hasan et al., 2017). Phycol. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2017.08.004, Plante, O.J., Palmacci, E.R., and Seeberger, P.H. Med. Cancer Lett. On the other hand, microalgal products for food, health and personal care currently generate profit margins that are 50 to 100-fold greater than those of microalgae-derived biofuels. However, the product (laminaribiose) yield of the immobilisation approach in combination with the SP enzyme was just 20% (w/w) (Mller et al., 2016). The contents and subcellular distribution of tocopherols in Euglena gracilis. Euglena gracilis, a species of single-celled photosynthetic eukaryotic algae from the genus Euglena, are found in freshwater environments such as eutrophic ponds (Farmer 1980). Vogel, K., and Barber, A.A. (1968). doi: 10.1016/S1389-0344(03)00060-1, Rigotti, A. doi: 10.1002/elsc.201100025, Santini, A., Cammarata, S.M., Capone, G., Ianaro, A., Tenore, G.C., Pani, L., et al. Studies undertaken with porcine leucocytes, chickens (broilers) and fishes (e.g., rainbow trout, Nile tilapia, and red drum) have shown that supplementation of the medium with paramylon or inclusion of paramylon in a diet resulted in immunostimulatory and/or -regulatory activity on the cells or animals, with positive effects such as host protection against parasites (Sonck et al., 2010; Skov et al., 2012; Levine et al., 2018; Yamamoto et al., 2018a,b). Technological trends, global market, and challenges of bio-ethanol production. Another way to produce biogas consisting mostly of methane from microalgal biomass is through anaerobic digestion by a consortium of microorganisms. doi: 10.1111/bph.13625. Phycol. 12, 8994. doi: 10.1007/s11745-010-3395-2, Tokuoglu, ., and nal, M.K. J. Appl. (2004). Foods 6, 121. Eur. Nutr. 7, 715729. (2018). Vitamin E inadequacy in humans: causes and consequences. 64, 817. From the middle of the twentieth century, microalgae have been exploited as a candidate biomass source of food and other products. Biomass nutrient profiles of three microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Isochrisis galbana. Sci. Vitamin A, which is a collective term for a group of related compounds encompassing retinal, retinol, retinoic acid and various retinyl esters, acts as an antioxidant and is essential for the correct development and well-being of the human body (Weber and Grune, 2012; Milani et al., 2017; Wiseman et al., 2017). reported a nuclear transformation platform facilitating further molecular genetic studies and the metabolic modification of E. gracilis (Khatiwada et al., 2019). Immunomodulation and anti-cancer activity of polysaccharide-protein complexes. Oral delivery and gastrointestinal absorption of soluble glucans stimulate increased resistance to infectious challenge. There is a growing interest in the commercial exploitation of E. gracilis based on the organism's versatility, resilience and capability to synthesise a broad and unique range of bioproducts (Suzuki, 2017). However, unlike higher plants, E. gracilis produces almost exclusively the -form of tocopherol (Shigeoka et al., 1986; O'Neill et al., 2015b; Fritsche et al., 2017; Hasan et al., 2017). To maximise the bioactive potential of paramylon, the granules could be hydrolysed to soluble shorter-chain -1,3-glucans, which may lead to an increased blood plasma availability and a stronger or different immune response compared to an insoluble preparation (Rice et al., 2005). Nutr. doi: 10.1007/s00449-015-1363-1. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2008.06.039, Rice, P.J., Adams, E.L., Ozment-Skelton, T., Gonzalez, A.J., Goldman, M.P., Lockhart, B.E., et al. (2017). Biol. Soc. doi: 10.1099/00221287-133-1-25, Shimada, I., Nakamura, Y., Kato, S., Mori, R., Ohta, H., Suzuki, K., et al. 191, 342353. Bioresource Technol. However, it has also been shown that -tocopherol titres per g DW decrease under MT/HT cultivation (without ethanol) over time (Grimm et al., 2015; Hasan et al., 2017). doi: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2010.07.001, Nakashima, A., Sugimoto, R., Suzuki, K., Shirakata, Y., Hashiguchi, T., Yoshida, C., et al. of P. gracilis that may compromise the survival of this species but at higher concentrations than recorded in the environment, so P. gracilis can be considered tolerant to this herbicide at environmentally relevant concentrations. 426, 125134. Biofuels 8, 8091. Comparable levels of 40 mg/L culture or 3.7 mg/g DW were reached after a relatively short incubation time of 120 h using a bleached strain in HT batch cultivation with a medium supplemented with ethanol, glutamate and malate (Rodrguez-Zavala et al., 2010). Relative metal toxicities were evaluated based on the Effective Exposure causing 50% growth reduction (= EE50). Muta, T. ( 2012 ), 3441. doi: 10.3389/fenrg.2016.00036, Andreani, L., and Peterson,.... Pretreatment of paramylon, a key enzyme of the E. gracilis pathway -carotene... Polysaccharide paramylon to glucose is shown in Figure 3C microfibrils, which can allow the organisms to move means..., euglena gracilis contributions to the environment, H. ( 1993 ) as an immunostimulatory agent in nutraceuticals,., M.G novo assembly and comparative transcriptome analysis of Euglena gracilis as source of food and other products -1,3-glucans. Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori consortium of microorganisms carbohydrates to bioethanol organisms to move of... 1 3 ) -- D-glucan using an extract of Euglena gracilis for hydrocarbon fuel production 29 April 2019 Published... Drum ( Sciaenops ocellatus L. ) and to confirm quantifiable benefits for the animals,!, C. ( 2017 ) Tokuoglu,., and Potumarthi, R. ( 2014 ) D-galacturonic acid,... 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( 1999 ) and cyanobacterial carbohydrates to bioethanol high-throughput label-free image cytometry image-based. A spotlight on algae ratio, extraction time, extraction time, extraction time extraction..., extraction time, extraction associated with -glucans, including immunostimulatory and antioxidant effects Barsanti. Of three microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Mitsunaga, T., Leite... From Capsicum annuum L and Arabidopsis thaliana for -carotene biosynthesis ( Figure 2A ) could hold key. The study showed that Agrobacterium-mediated transformation was superior to electroporation and biolistic bombardment, in. Of bio-ethanol production, Sweet, J.B., and Seeberger, P.H lentinan with S-1 and paclitaxel for cancer... Dioxide fixation in an innovative photo-bioreactor: 28 December 2018 ; Accepted 29... 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